Stoicism

SBust of philosopher Zenotoicism began around 300 BCE in Athens with Zeno of Citium. Zeno taught that the Logos or universal reason is the greatest good and that humans must live in accordance with reason. Acting on impulse or passion makes one “no more than an animal,” but living by rational virtue makes one truly human. From these roots Stoicism defined its goal as living “in agreement with nature,” meaning that people use their unique rational capacity to fulfill their natural potential. Stoicism flourished as a leading Hellenistic philosophy through the Roman era and enjoyed revivals in the Renaissance and modern times.  

Key Stoic Concepts: Central Stoic teachings include:

  • Dichotomy of Control: Distinguish what is in our power (our own judgments, choices and attitudes) from what is not (external events and others’ actions). Epictetus argued that we achieve tranquility by focusing only on what we can control.

  • Living According to Nature: Humans fulfill their purpose by living in harmony with nature. For Stoics this means using reason (our defining faculty) to guide our lives, accepting events as part of the natural order.

  • Virtue as the Highest Good: Moral virtue (wisdom, justice, courage, temperance) is the only true good. External things (health, wealth, reputation) are “indifferent” – they can’t make us truly happy. As the Stoics taught, virtue alone is sufficient for happiness.

  • Role of Reason (Logos): Stoics believed the universe is governed by a rational Logos, and human reason participates in this divine order. Living rationally – by thoughtful choice and self-discipline – aligns us with nature.

Roman Stoicism

In the Roman period Stoicism was carried on by thinkers who applied these ideas in life and government. Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE) was a statesman and tutor to Emperor Nero who wrote many letters and essays on Stoic ethics. His Letters to Lucilius and essays emphasize using virtue to endure adversity and guide one’s conduct. Seneca played a major role in later reception of Stoicism, and many readers approach Stoic philosophy through his works

 

Epictetus (55–135 CE) was born a slave and later freed; he taught in Greece at Nicopolis. Epictetus stressed practical ethics: he taught that true eudaimonia (flourishing) comes from living according to nature with reason and self-control. His student Arrian recorded his teachings in the Discourses and Enchiridion. For Epictetus the key was to learn what lies in our power and to treat impressions correctly – only rational, virtuous actions are truly good. In short, one secures happiness by living a life of reason and virtue (what he called living “according to nature”).

Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) was Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher. He wrote Meditations – personal reflections on duty, virtue and acceptance – while on military campaigns. These writings have been revered for generations as an example of Stoic self-examination. Marcus is often seen as a “philosopher-king”: he not only ruled an empire but consciously guided himself by Stoic principles. He captured the Stoic mindset in passages like, “If you are distressed by anything external…[remember] the pain is not due to the thing itself, but to your estimate of it”, illustrating how our judgments, not external events, determine our well-being.

Stoicism Today

Stoic philosophy has remained relevant into the modern era. In psychology, Stoic ideas underlie modern cognitive-behavioral therapy. Psychologist Albert Ellis drew on Stoicism when creating Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, a precursor to CBT, focusing on managing one’s beliefs about events. Indeed, Stoics long ago taught that emotional distress comes not from events themselves but from our judgments – a view echoed in today’s therapy and self-help. Recently, Stoicism has enjoyed a cultural revival: popular books and online communities bring Stoic exercises into everyday practice. For example, the Stoicism Today project organises “Stoic Week” events, and Marcus Aurelius’s Meditations (often quoted in memes and blogs) continues to inspire readers. These trends show that Stoicism’s guidance on resilience, virtue, and rational living still speaks to people facing modern stresses.